Strychnine :: Botany

Strychnine Strychnine is a poisonous alkaloid, C21H22N2O2, obtained in colorless or white rhombic crystals. These have a bitter taste and melt at around 290( C (4 p.1). Alkaloids are any class of naturally occurring organic nitrogen containing bases, usually containing one or more of these nitrogen atoms in a ring of atoms called a cyclic system. Alkaloids are primarily found in plants and are predominant in flowering plant species. The function of alkaloids in plants is thought to be simply a waste product of the plants metabolic processes, but current research may suggest a specific biological function. This is evident in some plants as the levels of alkaloid increase just prior to seed formation and then drops off after the seed is ripe. This evidence suggests possible mechanisms of maturation and possible defense, against certain insect species (5 p.2). Strychnine, being an alkaloid, is slightly soluble in water, but is more soluble in alcohol and is released from its salts by alkalis. Many of the commercial alkaloids are found in the genus Strychnos. Strychnine was the first alkaloid to be identified in plants of the genus Strychnos, Family Loganiaceae. Strychnos, created by Linnaeus in 1753, is a genus of trees and climbing shrubs of the gentian order. From the standpoint of biological diversity, it is the most important genus of the Loganiaceae family (6 p.1). The genus contains 196 various species and is distributed throughout the warm regions of Asia (58 species), America (64) and Africa (75). The Strychnos alkaloids were originally classified based solely on their geographic origin. Asian Strychnos was thought to contain strychnine and the American Strychnos were thought to contain curarizing ammonium salts (6 p.2). Plants of the genus Strychnos have opposite leaves and bear cymes of white or yellowish flowers that have a four-lobed or five-lobed calyx, a four-parted or five-parted corolla, five stamens, a solitary pistil and bears fruit in the form of a berry. The seeds and bark of many plants in this genus contain the powerful poison (4 p.2). Strychnine is obtained commercially from the seeds of the Saint-ignatius's-bean and from the nux-vomica tree. Strychnine was first discovered by French chemist Joseph-Bienaime Caenoiu and Pierre-Joseph Pelletier in 1818 in the Saint-Ignatins'-bean (S. ignatii)(1 p.2). Strychnos ignatii is a woody climbing shrub of the Philippines. It was introduced into Cochin China and is highly esteemed there as a medicine. It got its name from the attention it attracted from the Jesuits.

Solving the Puzzle of Jack the Ripper

In August 1888, the dwellers of London’s East End arose from sleep to find their lives a little darker than before. Mary Ann Nichols, a prostitute, had been viciously murdered, nearly decapitated by two cuts to the throat, her abdomen displaying multiple cuts (Begg 46). Over the next three years, ten other women would be murdered in the Whitechapel area. While there is no definitive proof linking these murders to one killer, analysis reveals that six of them display similarly rare crime characteristics: mutilation of genitalia, prostitute victims, and posing of bodies (Keppel, et al. 8-9).Five are commonly attributed to Jack the Ripper (1-2). Though they may not have been well known in life, these women—Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catharine Eddowes, and Mary Jane Kelly—would be discussed for the next hundred years. What is it about these cases that have captured the curiosity of so many people for so long? Crime historian Donald Rumbelow an swers: â€Å"What fascinates people is not the murders themselves. It’s the puzzle. Who? Who did it? Why weren’t they caught? It’s that puzzle that teases everybody† (â€Å"Jack†). During the past century, more than two hundred suspects have been offered as solutions to the puzzle. These individuals come from various professions, ethnic races, social strata, and economic standings. In police correspondence, Chief Constable Sir Melville Macnaghten appears to list three suspects by name, M. J. Druitt, Kosminski, and Michael Ostrog, saying that any of them are â€Å"more likely than Cutbush to be the killer† (Ryder). After analyzing this memorandum, investigative journalist Paul Begg suggests that these names were arbitrarily selected just to show that Cutbush was not a likely suspect (171). This is simply one example of confusion surrounding the identity of the killer. The most likely suspects include Walter Richard Sickert, a Danish artist; Severin Klosowski (also known as George Chapman), a Polish immigrant; and Francis Tumblety, an American quack doctor. It has also been proposed that the speed with which the murders were committed combined with the subsequent evasion of police suggest that more than one person might have been involved. Forensic psychiatrist David Abrahamsen asserts that Prince Albert Victor Edward and James Kenneth Stephen committed the crimes together (104). Keppel’s study of serial killers reveals that the Ripper murders were committed by someone with a high need to exert control over his victims. This was displayed â€Å"through the use of a knife to penetrate the victims’ bodies and desecrate their sexual regions† (18) along with â€Å"posing and mutilation [of the bodies] †¦ leaving them on display in sexually degrading positions with the wounds exposed† (19). In light of this study, Jack the Ripper must exhibit the characteristics of a need to dominate, aggression towards women, and picquerism, which is defined as â€Å"gaining sexual satisfaction from stabbing or blood letting† (Schroeder). Walter Sickert is one suspect who fits this description. In a recent book, popular fiction crime novelist Patricia Cornwell makes a case for Walter Sickert as Jack the Ripper. He was an actor â€Å"gifted at disguise,† a painter, and a writer with a â€Å"penchant for changing his name† (3). Cornwell suggests that Sickert had some sort of abnormal formation of his genitalia, not only leaving him â€Å"incapable of an erection† but also rendering him without â€Å"enough of a penis left for penetration† (5). She claims that Sickert developed an egotistical self-concept and a meanness towards women, qualities which, combined with a seeming inability to feel, above average intelligence, and a penchant to manipulate others, make Sickert a likely suspect (50-2). Cornwell’s study of Sickert’s artwork reveals â€Å"morbidity, violence and a hatred of women† (12). She contends that some of the depictions are all too similar to actual Jack the Ripper murder scenes. Her analysis of letters Jack the Ripper supposedly sent to police and the media also lead her to the conclusion that Sickert is the likely killer. She states that â€Å"handwriting quirks and the position of the Ripper’s hand when he wrote his taunting, violent letters lurk in other Ripper writings that are disguised. These same quirks †¦ lurk in Sickert’s erratic handwriting as well† (14). She even asserts that there is physical evidence linking Sickert to the Jack the Ripper letters. DNA evidence found on the adhesive stamp of a Ripper letter match that on two letters known to be written by Walter Sickert and on items owned by Sickert (13). For Cornwell, this evidence was so conclusive that she had no choice but to write her book (9-10). A second theory points to Severin Klosowski, also known as George Chapman. Severin Klosowski was a polish immigrant and a carpenter by trade. Christopher Morley describes him as having dark hair and blue eyes with a long chin and mouth, characteristics consistent with descriptions of Jack the Ripper. Having immigrated to England in 1887, Klosowski was in London during the time of the murders. Morley also states that Klosowski had some training as a junior surgeon while in Poland. Morley recounts an incident involving Klosowski attempting to kill his wife, Lucy. Interrupted in the act by a customer, Lucy noticed â€Å"a handle protruding from under the pillow and discovered a sharp and formidable knife. † Klosowski was reported to have said to her later on â€Å"that he had intended to cut her head off. † Klosowski’s similarity in appearance to the Ripper, previous attempt to murder, and residence in Whitechapel convinced Chief Inspector Frederick George Aberline that he was Jack the Ripper. A third theory identifies Francis Tumblety, an Irish American quack doctor, as Jack the Ripper. Tumblety lived in London when the murders were committed (â€Å"Jack†). Morley states that he was a strong suspect and under police watch because a shirt covered with blood was found in his home. British author Stewart Evans recounts: â€Å"He was arrested after the Miller’s Court murder, at which time, of course, the murders ceased. He escaped from England in early December 1888 and got back to America and was never arrested by Scotland Yard, despite the fact that they sent a team of detectives to America to try and catch him† (â€Å"Jack†). Morley describes Tumblety as a homosexual whose â€Å"feelings towards women were remarkable and bitter in the extreme. According to Morley, Tumblety gave â€Å"an all male dinner party, lecturing his guests on the evils of women, and proudly displayed his extensive collection of female body parts, which he kept in glass jars. † Further adding to his qualifications as the killer, Evans asserts that â€Å"Tumblety used many aliases† (â€Å"Jack†), a quality suitable to a killer who would give himself a name. Like Evans, others have found it too coincidental for the murders to have ceased right after Tumblety’s arrest for homosexual acts and his subsequent escape to America. Abrahamsen offers a twist in considering the identity of Jack the Ripper by asking how one man can take enough time to strangle and mutilate a woman’s body without being spotted by anyone (94). He suggests that in the murder of Elizabeth Stride, the signature slashings were interrupted, necessitating an accomplice to warn the killer of approaching policemen (89). Abrahamsen also points out differences among witness descriptions of the suspected killer, which he interprets as evidence of not one but two killers (90). He suggests James Kenneth Stephen (J. K. ) and Prince Albert Victor Edward (Prince Eddy) as joint killers. Abrahamsen suggests that Prince Eddy’s absent, womanizing father combined with his overly involved mother created a situation in which he was emotionally stunted (142-4). Prince Eddy also displayed homosexual tendencies which were ripe for exploitation (152). Being â€Å"emotionally and sexually immature †¦ he would have been curious about sex, but could not transfer his feelings into normal sexual desire for a woman† (152). Abrahamsen suggests that J. K. , who was hired to be Prince Eddy’s tutor, assumed a dominant role in their homosexual love relationship (152). J. K is described by Abrahamsen as having all the qualities necessary to be Jack the Ripper: â€Å"rigid [and] inflexible† (113), physically fit (121), â€Å"emasculated by the rejection of his mother† (120), adept at the use of language (118), viewing â€Å"women as evil† (120), possessing â€Å"striking looks and intellectual brilliance† (124). Abrahamsen suggests that the killings began as a result of J. K. eeling that his sway over Prince Eddy was decreasing and thus creating a situation that would â€Å"link Eddy to him permanently† (170). After a century has passed, the evidence and facts of the Jack the Ripper murders are increasingly more difficult to piece together. Though modern investigative techniques, such as the DNA evidence from Cornwell and Keppel’s profiling, have offered new clues, questions remain. Perhaps the only statement that can be made with any certainty is that after one hundred years, the serial killer named Jack the Ripper is certainly in his own grave somewhere and unable to kill or terrorize ever again.

Americium Facts Element 95 or Am

Americium is a radioactive metallic element with atomic number 95 and element symbol Am. Its the only synthetic element encountered in everyday life, in minute quantities in ionization-type smoke detectors. Here is a collection of interesting americium facts and data. Americium Facts Americium was first synthesized and identified in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph James, L Morgan, and Albert Ghiorso at the University of California, Berkeley as part of the Manhattan Project. The element was produced using a 60-inch cyclotron, although its likely earlier experiments had also produced the element. Although element 95 was discovered by synthesizing it, americium occurs naturally as a trace element in uranium-containing minerals. In the distant past, the element occurred naturally from nuclear reactions as recently as a billion years ago. All of this americium has already decayed into daughter isotopes. The element name americium is for America. Americium is located directly below the lanthanide element europium, which is named for Europe. Americium is a shiny silver radioactive metal. All isotopes of this element are radioactive. The isotope with the longest half-life is americium-243, which has a half-life of 7370 years. The most common isotopes are americium-241, with a half-life of 432.7 years, and americium-243. Americium-242 is also known, with a half-life of 141 years. In total, 19 isotopes and 8 nuclear isomers have been characterized. The isotopes variously undergo alpha, beta, and gamma decay. The primary uses of americium are in smoke detectors and for scientific research. Its possible the radioactive element may be used for spacecraft batteries. Americium-241 pressed with beryllium is a good neutron source. Like many radioactive elements, americium is useful for producing other elements. Element 95 and its compounds are useful portable alpha and gamma sources. Nuclear power plants naturally produce americium as part of the decay sequence from the neutron bombardment of plutonium. A few grams of the element is produced using this method each year. The physical and chemical properties of americium are similar to those of plutonium (the element to its left on the periodic table) and europium (the element above it on the periodic table). Fresh americium is a shiny silver-white lustrous metal, but it slowly tarnishes in air. The metal is soft and easily deformed with a lower bulk modulus than the actinides preceding it on the table. Its melting point is higher than that of plutonium and europium, but lower than that of curium. Americium is less dense than plutonium, yet denser than europium. Americium is paramagnetic over a wide temperature range, from extremely cold temperatures to above room temperature. The most common oxidation state of element 95 is 3, but it can range anywhere from 2 to 8. The range of oxidation states is the widest for any actinide element. The ions are colored in aqueous solution. The 3 state is colorless to reddish yellow, 4 state is reddish yellow, with brown and green colors for other states. Each oxidation state has a distinctive absorption spectrum. The crystal structure of americium depends on temperature and pressure. Under normal conditions, the metal is seen in a stable alpha form that has hexagonal crystal symmetry. When the metal is compressed, it changes to the beta form, which has face-centered cubic symmetry. Increasing the pressure even more (23 GPa) transforms americium into its gamma form, which is orthorhombic. A monoclinic crystal phase has also been observed, but its unclear exactly what conditions cause it. Like other actinides, americium self-damages its crystal lattice from alpha decay. This is especially noticeable at low temperatures. The metal dissolves in acids and reacts with oxygen. Americium may be used together with phosphorescent zinc sulfide to make a homemade spinthariscope, which is a sort of radiation detector that predates the Geiger counter. The radioactive decay of americium provides energy to the phosphor, causing it to emit light. There is no known biological role of americium in living organisms. Its generally considered toxic because of its radioactivity. Americium Atomic Data Element Name: Americium Element Symbol: Am Atomic Number: 95 Atomic Weight: (243) Element Group: f-block element, actinide (transuranic series) Element Period: period 7 Electron Configuration:  [Rn] 5f7  7s2 (2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 8, 2) Appearance: Silver metallic solid. Melting Point:  1449  K  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹(1176  Ã‚ °C, ​2149  Ã‚ °F) Boiling Point:  2880  K ​(2607  Ã‚ °C, ​4725  Ã‚ °F)  predicted Density:  12  g/cm3 Atomic Radius: 2.44 Anstroms Oxidation States: 6, 5, 4, 3